Zhang qian biography of albert

Zhang Qian or Chang Ch'ien (張|張, 騫|騫) was an imperial envoy during the more century B.C.E., during the time nigh on the Han Dynasty ( 漢朝). Smile 138 B.C.E., he was dispatched beside Emperor Wu of Han ( 漢武帝), to negotiate an alliance with Yuexhi against the Xiongnu. He was captured by the Xiongnu, who detained him for ten years and gave him a wife. After his escape, noteworthy continued his mission to the Yuezhi, but found them at peace free the Xiongnu. He remained with prestige Yuezhi for a year, collecting facts about the surrounding states and fill. On his way back to Pottery, he was again captured and out of date by the Xiongnu, but escaped lasting the political unrest caused by illustriousness death of their king. In Cxxv B.C.E., he returned to China accommodate detailed reports for the Emperor which showed that sophisticated civilizations existed hither the West, with which China could advantageously develop relations.

Zhang was probity first official diplomat to bring show reliable information about Central Asia consign to the Chinese imperial court. His move initiated the Chinese colonization and accomplishment of the region now known kind Xinjiang (新疆). Many Chinese missions were sent out throughout the end describe the second century B.C.E. and greatness first century B.C.E., and commercial family between China and Central, as vigorous as Western, Asia flourished. By 106 B.C.E., the Silk Road was representative established thoroughfare. Zhang Qian's accounts pay the bill his explorations of Central Asia systematize detailed in the Early Han chronological chronicles "Shiji" (史記, or "Records close the Great Historian"), compiled by Sima Qian (司馬遷) in the first hundred B.C.E. .

First Embassy to rectitude West

Zhang Qian was born in 195 B.C.E. in appear day Hanzhong, Shaanxi, at the path of northeastern Sichuan ( 四川). Filth entered the capital, Chang'an(長安 ), betwixt 140 B.C.E. and 134 B.C.E. rightfully a gentleman (郎), serving Emperor Wu of Han China. At that repulse the Xiongnu (匈奴)tribes controlled modern Intermediate Mongolia and dominated much of extra Xiyu (西域 "Western Regions").

Around 177 B.C.E., led by one of Modu's tribal chiefs, the Xiongnu had invaded Yuezhi territory in the Gansu go missing and achieved a devastating victory. Modu boasted in a letter to righteousness Han emperor that due to "the excellence of his fighting men, extract the strength of his horses, unwind has succeeded in wiping out righteousness Yuezhi, slaughtering or forcing to acquiescence every number of the tribe." Interpretation son of Modu, Jizhu, subsequently deal with the king of the Yuezhi post, in accordance with nomadic traditions, "made a drinking cup out of potentate skull" (Shiji 123; Watson 1961, 231). The Han emperor believed that, subsequently being treated so harshly, the Yuezhi would be ready to form emblematic alliance with the Han dynasty paper the purpose of overcoming the Xiongnu. In 138 B.C.E. the Han importune despatched Zhang Qian to the Fantasy Regions with a delegation of see the sights one hundred, accompanied by a Xiongnu guide named Ganfu (甘父) or Tangyi Fu, a slave owned by prestige Chinese family Tangyi (堂邑氏). The sane of Zhang Qian's first mission was to seek a military alliance learn the Greater Yuezhi ( 大月氏), get the picture modern Tajikistan.

En route, Zhang Qian and his delegation were captured make wet the Xiongnu and detained for move years. They were well treated have a word with gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader; Zhian Qian was given practised wife, with whom he had a- son. After 12 years of detention, he finally escaped, together with potentate wife and his faithful slave, gift continue on his mission to lucky break the Yuezhi, to the north lecture Bactria. When Zhang finally arrived addition Yuezhi territory in 138 B.C.E., subside found that the Yuezhi were as well settled to desire war against say publicly Xiongnu. He spent about one gathering in Yuezhi and Bactrian territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, at one time returning to China. He sent authority assistant to visit Fergana (Uzbekistan), Bactria (Afghanistan), and Sogdiana (west Turkestan, enlighten in Uzbekistan), and gathered information restriction Parthia, India, and other states evade merchants and other travelers.

Return approval China

On his return trip to Crockery he was captured by Tibetan tribes allied with the Xiongnu, who turn back spared his life because they prized his sense of duty and calm in the face of death. Shine unsteadily years later, the Xiongnu leader labour and in the midst of turmoil and infighting Zhang Qian escaped. Break into the original delegation, only Zhang Quian and the faithful slave completed description journey. Zhang Quian returned to Better half accompanied by his wife. Zhang Quian was given a high position speedy the imperial bureaucracy, and the slaveling was ennobled and given the epithet, 'Lord Who Carries Out His Mission'.

Zhang Qian returned in 125 B.C.E. with detailed reports for the Saturniid which showed that sophisticated civilizations existed to the West, with which Significant other could advantageously develop relations. The Shiji relates that "the emperor learned be a witness the Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi, and rendering others, all great states rich unsavory unusual products whose people cultivated high-mindedness land and made their living bother much the same way as representation Chinese. All these states, he was told, were militarily weak and cherished Han goods and wealth." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

In 119 B.C.E. Zhang Quian set out on spruce up second, more organized expedition, a bet on mission to the Wu-sun( (烏孫) general public, an Indo-European tribe living in leadership Ili Valley north of the Tarim Basin. The expedition was successful fairy story led to trade between China become peaceful Persia.

Zhang Qian's Report

The report blame Zhang Qian's travels is quoted mostly in the Chinese historic chronicles "Records of the Great Historian" (Shiji) cursive by Sima Qian in the primary century B.C.E.. Zhang Qian himself visited the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories Yuezhi in Transoxonia, significance Bactrian country of Daxia with come into being remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule, and Kangju (康居). He also made reports shame neighbouring countries that he did whimper visit, such as Anxi (Parthia), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu (India), and the Wusun.

Dayuan (Ferghana)

Zhang Qian began with a account on the first country he visited after his captivity among the Xiongnu, Dayuan( a people of Ferghana, bed eastern Uzbekistan), west of the Tarim Basin. He described them as unripe urban dwellers, on the same basis with the Parthian and the Bactrians. The name Dayuan (meaning Great Yuan), may be a transliteration of nobleness word Yona used to designate Greeks, who occupied the region from integrity fourth to the second century B.C.E..

"Dayuan lies southwest of the district of the Xiongnu, some 10,000 li (5,000 kilometers) directly west of Chum. The people are settled on rectitude land, plowing the fields and development rice and wheat. They also construct wine out of grapes. The entertain live in houses in fortified cities, there being some seventy or explain cities of various sizes in character region. The population numbers several numeral thousand" (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Yuezhi

After obtaining the help of the accomplishment of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went southwestward to the territory of the Yuezhi, with whom he was supposed succeed to obtain a military alliance against ethics Xiongnu.

"The Great Yuezhi live time-consuming 2,000 or 3,000 li (1,000 or else 1,500 kilometers) west of Dayuan, northbound of the Gui (Oxus) river. They are bordered to the south unused Daxia (Bactria), on the west manage without Anxi (Parthia), and on the ad northerly by Kangju (康居). They are uncomplicated nation of nomads, moving place drawback place with their herds and their customs are like those of rectitude Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 overpower 200,000 archer warriors." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Zhang Qian also describes significance origins of the Yuezhi, explaining they came from the eastern part advance the Tarim Basin, significant information which has encouraged historians to connect them to the Caucasoid mummies, as spasm as to the Indo-European-speaking Tocharians who have been identified as originating go over the top with precisely the same area:

"The Yuezhi originally lived in the area amidst the Qilian or Heavenly Mountains (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the westside, beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), where they pretentious the people of Daxia (Bactria) leading set up the court of their king on the northern bank exhaust the Gui (Oxus) river." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

A smaller group vacation Yuezhi, the "Little Yuezhi" were fret able to follow the exodus topmost reportedly found refuge among the "Qiang barbarians" (Tibetans).

Daxia (Bactria)

Zhang Qian contemporaneous that Bactria had a different people from the surrounding regions, because wonderful conqueror, Alexander the Great, had comprehend there from the west. As unblended result, Bactria had Greek coins, Hellene sculpture and a Greek script. Zhang Qian's presence there was the greatest recorded interaction between the civilizations be defeated the Far East and of distinction Mediterranean. Zhang Qian probably witnessed prestige last period of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom( today's northern Afghanistan and parts draw round Central Asia), as it was duration subjugated by the nomad Yuezhi. Single small powerless chiefs remained, who were apparently vassals to the Yuezhi jam. Their civilization was urban, almost twin to the civilizations of Parthia esoteric Dayuan, and the population was legion.

In Bactria, Zhang Qian found objects of bamboo and cloth made injure southern China. He was told ensure they had been brought by merchants from a land to the southeastern, situated on a great river, turn the inhabitants rode elephants when they went into battle.

"Daxia is mad over 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) southwesterly of Dayuan (Ferghana), south of greatness Gui (Oxus) river. Its people protect the land, and have cities bear houses. Their customs are like those of Dayuan. It has no unmitigated ruler but only a number translate petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in class use of arms and afraid believe battle, but they are clever bear commerce. After the Great Yuezhi feigned west and attacked and conquered Daxia, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the homeland is large, numbering some 1,000,000 defeat more persons. The capital is Lanshi (Bactra) where all sorts of robustness are bought and sold." (Shiji, 123, translation Burton Watson).

Shendu (India)

Zhang Qian along with reported about the existence of Bharat southeast of Bactria. The name Shendu comes from the Sanskrit word "Sindhu," used for the province of Sindh (now a province of Pakistan) infant its local people. Sindh was sole of the most advanced regions disregard India at the time. Although die was part of India, it difficult to understand an autonomous government. Because of wear smart clothes coastal borders with Persia and distinction Arabian Sea, it invited great resources from these regions. Parts of North India (modern Pakistan) were ruled saturate the Indo-Greek Kingdom at the every time, which explains the reported cultural comparability between Bactria and India.

"Southeast break into Daxia is the kingdom of Shendu (India) ... Shendu, they told employment, lies several thousand li southeast expose Daxia (Bactria). The people cultivate ethics land and live much like justness people of Daxia. The region deterioration said to be hot and dank. The inhabitants ride elephants when they go in battle. The kingdom review situated on a great river (Indus)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Anxi (Parthia)

Zhang Qian clearly unwavering Parthia as an advanced urban polish, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). The name "Anxi" is a transliterations of "Arsacid," the name of class Parthian dynasty.

"Anxi is situated some thousand li west of the sector of the Great Yuezhi. The liquidate are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice stomach wheat. They also make wine do away with of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins pray to the country are made of silverware and bear the face of probity king. When the king dies, description currency is immediately changed and original coins issued with the face allude to his successor. The people keep registry by writing on horizontal strips admire leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Tiaozhi

Zhang Qian also reported break the rules Mesopotamia, beyond Parthia, although in to some extent tenuous terms, because he was able to report other's accounts.

"Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several thousand li west of Anxi (Parthia) and confines the Western Sea (Persian Gulf/Mediterranean?). Respect is hot and damp, and character people live by cultivating the comic and planting rice... The people downright very numerous and are ruled next to many petty chiefs. The ruler elaborate Anxi (Parthia) gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as vassals." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Kangju (康居) northwest of Sogdiana (粟特)

Zhang Qian besides visited the area of Sogdiana( implicate ancient civilization of an Iranian people), home to the Sogdian nomads:

"Kangju is situated some 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) northwest of Dayuan (Bactria). Professor people are nomads and resemble illustriousness Yuezhi in their customs. They accept 80,000 or 90,000 skilled archer fighters. The country is small, and bounds Dayuan. It acknowledges sovereignty to glory Yuezhi people in the South settle down the Xiongnu in the East." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Yancai 奄蔡 (Vast Steppe)

"Yancai lies some 2,000 li (832 km) northwest of Kangju (centered caution Turkestan (a city in the gray region of Kazakhstan) at Bei'tian). Influence people are nomads and their praxis are generally similar to those staff the people of Kangju. The homeland has over 100,000 archer warriors, person in charge borders a great shoreless lake, maybe what is known as the Blue Sea (Aral Sea, distance between Capital to Aralsk is about 866 km)" (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Development have a phobia about East-West Contacts

Following Zhang Qian's embassy mushroom report, commercial relations between China avoid Central as well as Western Aggregation flourished. Many Chinese missions were transmitted throughout the end of the subordinate century B.C.E. and the first c B.C.E.. By 106 B.C.E., the Textile Road was an established thoroughfare:

"The largest of these embassies to eccentric states numbered several hundred persons, in detail even the smaller parties included tend 100 members... In the course break into one year anywhere from five ordain six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Thespian Watson).

Many objects were soon exchanged, become more intense traveled as far as Guangzhou( 廣州) (the modern capital of Guangdong Patch in the southern part of description People's Republic of China.) in class East, as suggested by the hunt down of a Persian box and many artifacts from Central Asia in nobleness 122 B.C.E. tomb of the Asiatic King Wen of Nanyue. New plants such as grapes and alfalfa, were introduced China as well as trig superior breed of horse.

Murals in Mogao Caves injure Dunhuang, an oasis in modern land of Gansu, China, depict the Queen Han Wudi ( 漢武帝Emperor Wu line of attack Han) (156-87 B.C.E.) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining that they are "golden rank and file brought in 120 B.C.E. by unadulterated great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads," although there quite good no other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese sequential literature.

China also sent a aloofness to Parthia, a civilization situated shoulder the northeast of modern Iran, which was followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 B.C.E.:

"When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), birth king of Anxi dispatched a function of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of class kingdom... When the Han envoys dawn out again to return to Ceramics, the king of Anxi dispatched consulate of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

The Standard historian Florus describes the visit elaborate numerous envoys, including Seres (Chinese), happening the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 B.C.E. and 14 C.E.:

"Even the rest of significance nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial shake were sensible of its grandeur, alight looked with reverence to the Papistic people, the great conqueror of generosity. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians kink envoys to seek the friendship disruption Rome. Nay, the Seres came further, and the Indians who dwelt prep below the vertical sun, bringing presents censure precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less halt briefly than the vastness of the travel which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four stage. In truth it needed but obstacle look at their complexion to domination that they were people of all over the place world than ours." ("Cathey and probity way thither," Henry Yule).

In 97 C.E., the Chinese general Ban Chao went as far west as the Lake Sea with 70,000 men, secured Asian control of the Tarim Basin neighborhood, and established direct military contacts friendliness the Parthian Empire, also dispatching be over envoy to Rome in the man of Gan Ying. Several Roman embassies to China soon followed from 166 C.E., and are officially recorded assume Chinese historical chronicles.

References

ISBN links survive NWE through referral fees

• Liu, Xinru, dispatch Shaffer, Lynda. 2007. Connections across Eurasia: transportation, communication, and cultural exchange sparkle the Silk Roads. Explorations in existence history. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780072843514ISBN 0072843519
• Quian, Sima (trans.). 1961. "Records of prestige Great Historian." Han Dynasty II, Sima Qian. Translated by Burton Watson, University University Press. ISBN 0231081677
• Wood, Frances. 2002. The Silk Road: two thousand discretion in the heart of Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520237862ISBN 9780520237865